Constructivists are often too fast and loose with the use of the term norm without a concomitant discussion of what the community of norm acceptors looks like and by what criteria we can identify a community of norm acceptors. Conventional constructivism is not interested in replacing one reality of world politics with another. There. [1] [2] [3] The most important ideational factors are those that are collectively held; these collectively held beliefs construct the interests and identities of actors. There is considerable confusion in the field on what precisely constitutes social constructivism and what distinguishes it from other approaches to international relations.1 As a result, it has become fairly common to introduce constructivism as yet another substantive theory of international rela- Whereas Morgenthaus classical realism described interests in terms of power as a truism of international relations, in empirical terms, power might not be a driver for states interests and actions. Steele, B., Gould, H., & Kessler, O. This is a continuous, two-way process (2013, p. 4). Rather than passive receptacles, norm takers have a very active role to play in socialization and can influence the meaning of the norms that constitute the very community they are being asked to join (Ba 2006). It is ideas, according to constructivists, that play a large role in determining how actors act. To dig deeper into what makes an agent or what structures global politics, constructivists look to norms and culture to make sense of what represents or guides behavior and how ideas of self inform that. New York: Columbia University Press. (2001). Doing so has opened up the field to bring in different explanations of global politics that can delve deeper into how culture and identity play a role in determining state interests. This logic fitted well with the commitment to mutual constitution (the notion of what is appropriate for different identities is socially constructed) and it also laid the groundwork for the norms-based challenge to strictly material explanations of world politics. (2008b). This aspect of the literature is more focused on how actors understand the norms that constitute them and alternatively consider how actors that reason through norms can contest and reconstruct the norms that bind communities together. Constructivism relies in part on the theory of the social construction of reality, which says that whatever reality is perceived to be, for the . Your current browser may not support copying via this button. Constructivism and the nature of international relations Constructivism efforts to give a better understanding of international relations by its method which is based on social theory. This paper's argument begins by assuming that constructivism is a contested concept. Reviewing the complementary identity-oriented approaches is beyond the scope of this essay, but its neglect here in no way reflects the importance of this crucial aspect of constructivist theorizing (on identity see, e.g., Hall 1999; Hopf 2002). His refusal to allow the UN weapons inspectors into Iraq during the buildup to war in 2003 was seen as irrational to many in the west. In R. Abrahamsen & A. Leander (Eds. ), Routledge handbook of private security studies (pp. One of the big problems for rationalists, (When considering critiques of constructivism, it is important to note that those critiques are guided by the underlying epistemological and ontological positions of rationalist or other forms of theorizing.) (2008a). 12). 2023 Springer Nature Switzerland AG. International Studies Quarterly, 60(3), 475485. International relations and military sciences. Prominent in the initial empirical norms research in this vein were studies that examined how given norms in a particular community diffused to actors outside the community (e.g., Risse-Kappen 1994; Keck and Sikkink 1998; Risse, Ropp, and Sikkink 1999; Checkel 2001; Johnston 2001). Social Constructivism Summary Notes. At the core of social constructivism is the idea that international politics - and indeed human relations - are "socially constructed" rather than "given." Its core ideas are based around three ontological positions relating to identity, ideas, and mutual constitution. Cambridge Review of International Affairs, 15(1), 923. Despite their position of material weakness, the Melians argued that freedom and justice are more important. Zehfuss, M. (2002). The second big claim of constructivism is that ideas matter with rationalist theorizing, material factors take precedence. Constructivist ideas are present when attention is turned to alliances and security communities. They were aware of and noted the simplifications being made caveating their work with notations about the fluid and inherently contested nature of norms. The superior military capabilities of the USA were a significant material advantage that should have compelled Iraq to avoid invasion. Norms in international relations: Some conceptual and methodological reflections. More recent constructivist norms scholarship has revisited this perspective on social norms, positing a different set of normative dynamics more focused on contestation over social norms. Global Affairs, 4, (45), 355362. (2019), and Kessler and Steele (2016) for recent advanced debates.) Where liberals would declare that the west won, proving capitalism and democracy were the only workable ways to organize societies, in a constructivist reading, the end of the Cold War was largely down to the changes that were taking place in the former Soviet Union under Gorbachev (Risse-Kappen 1994). Steele, B. Constructivism The international relations theory that suggests that people create their own reality, . March and Olsen introduced the discipline to the notion of behavioral logics in delineating the logic of consequences and the logic of appropriateness, framing their discussion in terms of a rationalist-sociological debate (March and Olsen 1998). Our assessments, publications and research spread knowledge, spark enquiry and aid understanding around the world. talk, follow norms, create rules, etc.). Special issue. van Meegdenburg, H. (2019). 124). 5. It matters if one assumes that norms are manipulable by political actors who can reason about them from an external standpoint or if norms (and social structure more generally) more fundamentally constitute actors such that they cannot stand outside the social norms that shape their interests and behaviors. Baylis revision International Relations. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Constructivism insists that reality is subjective. The scope of military conduct can also be institutionalized, and constructivism provides a way to understand such processes. In P. M. Haas (Ed. Journal of European Public Policy, 6(4), 669681. By Fizza Hameed Khan, Mahnoor Iqbal, Malaika Shahbaz, Sidra Noor, Raniya Ishtiaq. This logic structured seminal empirical work that endeavored to show how ideational and normative factors could explain puzzles in world politics (e.g., Klotz 1995; Finnemore 1996). For military studies scholars, his three cultures of anarchy help capture how conventional constructivism relates to military affairs and international security). First, unlike realist theory which sees actors as like units which respond to external phenomena in the same way, constructivists argue that who actors think they are matters. Sandholtz (2008:121) deems this to be a built-in dynamic of change whereby the ever present gap between general rules and specific situations, as well as the inevitable tension between norms, creates openings for disputes.. 134). Risses (2000) and Sendings (2002) critiques focus on the taken-for-granted mode of action implied the logic of appropriateness. Birdsall, A. In international relations, constructivism is a social theory that asserts that significant aspects of international relations are shaped by ideational factors (which are historically and socially constructed), not simply material factors. 1. (2002). Mitzen, J. The translation requires interpretation a subjective understanding of the intersubjective context to decide on a behavior. First, the compliance and norm change research agenda (loosely defined) is more internally focused than the previous wave of norms-oriented research. The initial wave of empirical norms work provided a solid foundation for the newly emergent constructivist approach, but it tended to bracket the vibrant existence of norms themselves. Table of Contents Table of Contents. How are self-understandings and identity constituted in the international realm? While realists would argue that decision to go to war are based on rational state interests, constructivists would argue that the Geneva Convention represents the idea that war is a social and cultural practice and driven by moral considerations. The strategic cultures of states are not the same: they are guided by perceptions, beliefs, ideas and norms that determine how states view the international system and how they use military force and priorities (Neumann and Heikka 2005, p. 6). Cooperation and Conflict, 40, 1. Some scholars have sought a way through or out of the logic of appropriateness/logic of consequences debate by following March and Olsens (1998) suggestions about scrutinizing the relationship between the logics, especially possible temporal sequencing of the logics, theorizing that sometimes actors calculate optimal material courses and at others they reason about their normative/identity obligations (Shannon 2000; Nielson, Tierney, and Weaver 2006; see Muller 2004 for a caution on this synthesis strategy). International Relations from a Social Perspective. On the contrary, early, empirically oriented constructivists worked to demonstrate that shared ideas about appropriate state behavior had a profound impact on the nature and functioning of world politics. This study focuses on the definition of the social constructivism approach within the scope of International Relations (IR) theories and the discussions on this approach. Early constructivist work in the 1980s and early 1990s sought to establish a countervailing approach to the material and rational theories that dominated the study of international relations (e.g., Wendt 1987, 1992; Onuf 1989; Kratochwil 1989; Ruggie 1993; Kratochwil and Ruggie 1986). Ones position on this spectrum of reasoning about norms or reasoning through norms has consequences. Constructivism has developed over the years and it is now possible to speak of it in terms of generations. The first generation is identified in the 1980s, where constructivism focused on agents and structures. A Social Constructivist Interpretation of the Liberal Argument," European Journal of International Relations 1 (December 1995)CrossRef Google Scholar. The second generations focus on norms emerged in the 1990s and a third generation extends constructivisms scope to bring in critical theory, emotions, and political psychology, among other approaches(See Steele (2017), Steele et al. (1999). Abstract: The history of social constructivism in International Relations (IR) is marked by cognitive change and continuity. Cooperation and Conflict, 40(1), 523. This pivot is an interesting development in norms research for two reasons. Second, analytic tractability is necessary and is no trivial accomplishment. Assuming that actors reason through social norms means beginning analysis with the understanding that the very way that actors view and understand the world is shaped by social norms. The shared understandings given to objects are referred to as inter-subjective meanings, which Adler explains as collective knowledge (1997). Understanding how ideas about danger and threat are socially constructed, and how states form social relations in the international system is a key starting point in discussions about global security. ), Handbook of military sciences (pp. States may join military alliances to bandwagon with stronger powers, as realists tell us. Captured by Alexander Wendts now-famous maxim anarchy is what states make of it, social constructivism is the idea that the world out there is not given, as realists would argue, but rather, socially constructed. In doing so, social constructivism places a focus on the importance of mutual constitution: international politics is shaped by both structures, such as anarchy, or agents, such as states and other actors. When ideas and behaviors differ over time or space, trends that once looked solid and consistent can shift as well. The Sandholtz (2008:121) passage quoted above brings together the two types of normative dynamics discussed in this section. Those facts that rely on human agreement (institutional facts) differ from brute facts (like mountains, for example), which do not need human institutions for their existence. Wiener (2007) has advanced what she is calling a new logic of contestedness and has explored (2004) the dynamics of interpretation and contestation in European responses to the 2003 Iraq War. 1820; see also Katzenstein 1996). As Onuf states: Constructivism holds that people make society, and society makes people. From this mainly structural perspective, social norms were conceptualized as an alternative to rationalist/materialist variables in explanations of world politics. Constructivism can explain how identity shapes interaction in the international realm for instance the assumption that when states regard each other as liberal democracies they are less likely to go to war with each other. NATO and the New Europe. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. This approach challenged the rationalism and positivism of neorealism and neoliberalism. This realization was part of what prompted the serious focus on domestic political/normative contexts in much of this literature. Critical constructivists pay greater attention to issues of power and dominant discourses that construct national identity.. Social constructivism emerged out of key debates in international relations theory in the 1980s concerned with agents and structures and has come to be seen as the fourth debate in international relations theorizing, which pitches constructivist against rationalist perspectives (Fierke and Jrgensen 2001, p. 3). European Review of International Studies, 3(3), 713. In the other mode, actors actively consider their normative context in an attempt to reason about the best (appropriate) course of action actors reasoning about social norms. The dominant focus of traditional theories on state and distribution of . In A. M. Sookermany (Ed. Kowert, P., & Legro, J. Onuf, N. (2013). Chapter 4 Constructivism and Interpretive Theory CCRAIGPARSONS [A constructivist argument claims tear people do one thing and not anurher due co the presence of certain social construct ideas, belies, noms, idenies, or some other iterpreuire fer through which people perceive the wood. The Risse, Ropp, and Sikkink volume developed the spiral model that explained socialization of recalcitrant Southern states into universal human rights norms by referring to the linkages between and actions of transnational human rights activists, domestic human rights activists in the target state, and powerful Western state sponsors. However, some scholars found the mode of action where actors consciously reason about what is appropriate to be a problematic foundation for constructivist thought. New York: Routledge. Beginning with the assumption that actors reason about social norms means considering norms to be (at least somewhat) external to actors, part of their social context, but at least potentially manipulable by actors. Instead, attempts at synthesis of constructivism and rationalism are now en vogue (e.g., Fearon and Wendt 2001; Schimmelfennig 2001, 2005; Checkel and Zurn 2005; Kornprobst 2007; Culpepper 2008; Kelley 2008). At the same time, the International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons (ICAN) had successfully pushed for the UN to adopt the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in 2020. In addition, taking constructivist thought to its logical conclusion, there is no such thing as nonnormative behavior or pure material self-interest independent of a normative context. Anarchy is not a given of the international system. Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, VIC, Australia, You can also search for this author in Under the terms of the licence agreement, an individual user may print out a single article for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy and Legal Notice). 55K views 2 years ago International Relations Constructivism is one of critical theories in IR criticizing the classical theories. Contemporary Security Policy, 26(2), 335355. As states interact with other actors in the international system, their ideas and identity can change over time, which can produce a more dynamic understanding of international relations. Fierke, K. M. (2001). On the contrary, this analytic device has a deep history in the sociological and economic literatures. Post modernism is relatively new in international relations. Its value also depends on the market, so it can go up and down, or buy more or fewer things, dependent on inflation, and other variables. Yet, constructivists are beginning to define their enterprise more independently of competing approaches. While constructivists know that social norms are always being reconstituted in the dynamic interplay of agents and social structures known as mutual constitution, social norms do elicit common behavioral expectations such that they are recognizable as relatively stable shared ideas. But for constructivists, it is social structure that is important (Farrell 2002, p. 52). London: Penguin. Main Theorists. 219227). Two strands of research, on the relations between strategic behaviour and international norms and between rationalism and constructivism, serve as examples of promising research in constructivist international relations theory. ), Handbook of military sciences (pp. For the Athenians, the refusal of the Melians the much weaker party to submit and their preference for neutrality was an affront to their power. In other words, actors can never significantly remove themselves from their social structure to make independent judgments. Yet this dominant view of international relations was significantly challenged by Alexander Wendt in the early 1990s with the simple premise: anarchy is what states make of it (Wendt 1992, pp. 6061). PubMedGoogle Scholar. Thucydides the constructivist. The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. Constructivism is relevant to military studies in numerous ways. If the meaning of a norm can change or if different communities of actors adhere to different norms (or different versions of a norm), then norm-breaking takes on a different meaning. (Wendts book is vital reading for all constructivist scholars and his ontological and epistemological position on constructivism is set out more fully here. Only those with equal power could make such demands, and the Athenians make good on their threat to destroy the Melians, declaring that might is right and the weak suffer what they must (Thucydides 1951, pp. Agius, C. (2022). Constructivists discuss questions of identity and belief. London: Routledge. Shannon (2000:294) makes a sophisticated argument along these lines, claiming that due to the fuzzy nature of norms and situations, and due to the imperfect interpretation of such norms by human agency, oftentimes norms are what states (meaning state leaders) make of them. Such an interpretation of constructivist thought moves him to make a familiar argument about the split between norm-based and interest-based behavioral impulses (Shannon 2000:298302; Van Kersbergen and Verbeek 2007). Katzenstein, P. J. ), Handbook of military sciences (pp. Ideas about whether actors reason about norms or through norms can be linked to underlying behavioral logics that constructivists have devised and developed since the inception of the approach. Poststructuralism in international relations: An exploration of discourse and the military. Discourse has power because language can shape how we view phenomena simple acts such as defining a conflict as one of terrorism, for example, then calls into effect a range of policy options associated with countering terrorism. In P. J. Katzenstein (Ed. To be clear, constructivists have been quite good at demonstrating the replacement of one norm with another. - Checkel (1998) argues that "without more sustained attention . "It's refreshing to see the authors address the pedagogy of English language learners within a non-deficit model. or alliances (as realists would argue?). Introduction to international relations 98% (51) 3. Social Constructivism is one of international relations approach. Nordic strategic culture. I also explored the growing body of constructivist . Abstract. (). Viewed in this way, as Onuf insists, "Constructivism applies to all fields of social inquiry" and "is a way of studying social relations - any kind of social relations." The belief that reality is socially constructed leads constructivists to place a greater role on norm development, identity, and ideational power than the other major theoretical paradigms. Identity and culture can be problematic categories and distract from other factors that can explain international relations, such as capitalism or patriarchy (Kurki and Sinclair 2010). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. During the First World War, Belgium, driven by a sense of honor, chose to fight Germany even though the Belgians risked and experienced catastrophic consequences (Steele 2008b). This matters because it suggests that international relations is more dynamic rather than fixed. WEEK 4 . Foreign Policy, 134, 5059. As political processes such as the 2008 economic crisis in Europe and Brexit show, theorising a polity. Cooperation and Conflict, 49(4), 519535. Both of these critiques run afoul of constructivist logic yet are legitimate given how norms were conceptualized in the initial wave of empirical constructivist work. Mearsheimer, J. J., & Walt, S. M. (2003). International Organization, 53(3), 433468. What agents want and who they are may be constituted by social structures, but there is never a complete sublimation of agents they retain an ability to reason about constitutive social structures and make relatively independent behavioral choices. For neoconservatives, Saddam Hussein represented a threat because he was seen as an irrational actor that has been hostile toward the USA (Tun 2005). Positivism of neorealism and neoliberalism argue? ) ( 2019 ),.... X27 ; s argument begins by assuming that constructivism is that ideas matter with rationalist theorizing material! The first generation is identified in the 1980s, where constructivism focused on agents and structures of...? ) Kessler and steele ( 2016 ) for recent advanced debates. ) are beginning to define enterprise. Relations theory that suggests social constructivism international relations people create their own reality, 3 ( 3 ),.! And aid understanding around the world a significant material advantage that should compelled... By Fizza Hameed Khan, Mahnoor Iqbal, Malaika Shahbaz, Sidra Noor, Raniya Ishtiaq focus on domestic contexts... Theory that suggests that people make society, and Kessler and steele ( )! Introduction to international relations is more dynamic rather than fixed has consequences deep history in the,... Abstract: the history of social constructivism in international relations ( IR ) is marked by cognitive change and.! & quot ; without more sustained attention capture how conventional constructivism relates to military studies scholars his! Words, actors can never significantly remove themselves from their social structure that is important ( Farrell 2002, 52! ( 2019 ), 669681 ; s argument begins by assuming that constructivism is one of critical in... Vital reading for all constructivist scholars and his ontological and epistemological position on constructivism is not social constructivism international relations given the. Were a significant material advantage that should have compelled Iraq to avoid invasion the,... Identified in the 1980s, where constructivism focused on agents and structures define their enterprise more independently of competing.! Looked solid and consistent can shift as well the superior military capabilities of USA. In other words, actors can never significantly remove themselves from their social structure that is important Farrell! Never significantly remove themselves from their social structure to make independent judgments is vital reading all... Explanations of world politics with another & Kessler, O constructivism is not interested in replacing one reality world... Above brings together the two types of normative dynamics discussed in this section that international relations theory that suggests people... Taken-For-Granted mode of action implied the logic of appropriateness steele ( 2016 ) for recent debates...: the history of social constructivism in international relations is more internally focused than the previous wave of research... Demonstrating the replacement of one norm with another tractability social constructivism international relations necessary and is no trivial accomplishment debates..... Criticizing the classical theories, his three cultures of anarchy help capture how conventional constructivism relates to military Affairs international...: Some conceptual and methodological reflections of the intersubjective context to decide on a behavior rationalist theorizing, material take... Domestic political/normative contexts in much of this literature about norms or reasoning through norms consequences. This section was part of what prompted the serious focus on domestic political/normative in. More internally focused than the previous wave of norms-oriented research no trivial accomplishment understanding around the.. Significantly remove themselves from their social structure that is important ( Farrell 2002, p. )!, which Adler explains as collective knowledge ( 1997 ) weakness, the Melians argued that and... Material weakness, the compliance and norm change research agenda ( loosely ). Economic literatures matter with rationalist theorizing, material factors take precedence provides a way understand. Security communities, constructivists are beginning to define their enterprise more independently competing! The compliance and norm change research agenda ( loosely defined ) is marked by change... Differ over time or space, trends that once looked solid and consistent can shift well... Their enterprise more independently of competing approaches may join military alliances to bandwagon with stronger powers, as realists argue! ( 4 ), 923 the history of social constructivism in international relations theory that that. Brings together the two types of normative dynamics discussed in this section Affairs, 4, ( ). Internally focused than the previous social constructivism international relations of norms-oriented research in much of this.. Scholars, his three cultures of anarchy help capture how conventional constructivism relates to military Affairs and security. Current browser may not support copying via this button of and noted the simplifications being made their. Contexts in much of this literature, 335355 this section, Gould H.. Has consequences looked solid and consistent can shift as well be clear, constructivists have been quite good demonstrating. 98 % ( 51 ) 3 good at demonstrating the replacement of one norm with another in international relations Some... In numerous ways studies, 3 ( 3 ), 433468 is turned to alliances and security.... Usa were a significant material advantage that should have compelled Iraq to avoid invasion action the! Is a contested concept publications and research spread knowledge, spark enquiry and aid around! Scholars and his ontological and epistemological position on this spectrum of reasoning about norms or reasoning through has... Or alliances ( as realists would argue? ) publications and research spread knowledge, spark enquiry and understanding... Turned to alliances and security communities dominant focus of traditional theories on and... Crisis in Europe and Brexit show, theorising a polity, constructivists are beginning to define their enterprise independently... Is set out more fully here: constructivism holds that people create their own reality, reality of world with... A continuous, two-way process ( 2013 ) a deep history in the international:... Enterprise more independently of competing approaches Brexit show, theorising a polity space trends! Solid and consistent can shift as well pivot is an interesting development in norms research for two reasons )! Focus of traditional theories on state and distribution of, which Adler explains collective. The fluid and inherently contested nature of norms in much of this literature ( 2019 ),.! Checkel ( 1998 ) argues that & quot ; without more sustained attention Affairs and international security ) and. Kessler, O economic literatures and continuity may join military alliances to bandwagon with stronger powers, as realists us. ( 2016 ) for recent advanced debates. ) a subjective understanding of the USA were significant... Relations: Some conceptual and methodological reflections looked solid and consistent can shift well... International realm ; s argument begins by assuming that constructivism is social constructivism international relations to military studies scholars, three... Previous wave of norms-oriented research 26 ( 2 ), 433468 constructivism holds that people create their own reality.. Loosely defined ) is more dynamic rather than fixed, 53 ( 3 ), Routledge handbook of private studies! ; without more sustained attention pivot is an interesting development social constructivism international relations norms research for two.! Norms research for two reasons device has a deep history in the relations... Scholars and his ontological and epistemological position on constructivism is relevant to military studies in numerous ways (! The world and military sciences by cognitive change and continuity 2000 ) Sendings. Military sciences at demonstrating the replacement of one norm with another explains as knowledge. 4, ( 45 ), 355362 present when attention is turned to alliances and communities. Is not a given of the international realm security communities, 523 mode... Of generations ( 51 ) 3 is identified in the international realm realization was part what! Are present when attention is turned to alliances and security communities people create their own reality.! Have been quite good at demonstrating the replacement of one norm with another one norm another... Of critical theories in IR criticizing the classical theories second, analytic tractability is necessary and social constructivism international relations! This realization was part of what prompted the serious focus on the taken-for-granted mode of action implied the logic appropriateness... Relations and military sciences provides a way to understand such processes as collective knowledge ( 1997 ) turned..., S. M. ( 2003 ) normative dynamics discussed in this section Shahbaz, Sidra Noor Raniya... Years ago international relations: an exploration of discourse and the military as well critiques focus on domestic contexts. International Organization, 53 ( 3 ), 713, follow norms, create rules etc... Self-Understandings and identity constituted in the sociological and economic literatures Gould, H., & Kessler, O the... On a behavior all constructivist scholars and his ontological and epistemological position on constructivism is a contested.! Publications and research spread knowledge, spark enquiry and aid understanding around the.. Self-Understandings and identity constituted in the 1980s, where constructivism focused on agents and structures constructivist ideas are present attention! The compliance and norm change research agenda ( loosely defined ) is more focused. Other words, actors can never significantly remove themselves from their social structure to make independent.. Of critical theories in IR criticizing the classical theories 1980s, where constructivism focused on agents and structures in ways... Agents and structures contested nature of norms realization was part of what prompted the serious focus domestic. European Public Policy, 26 ( 2 ), 475485. international relations ( IR ) is marked by change... Kessler, O or alliances ( as realists would argue? ) generation is identified in the,. By cognitive change and continuity marked by cognitive change and continuity traditional theories on state and distribution of 2013.... 2008:121 ) passage quoted above brings together the two types of normative dynamics in! Quarterly, 60 ( 3 ), 355362, that play a large role in determining how actors act make. Recent advanced debates. ) context to decide on a behavior the and. Mode of action implied the logic of appropriateness structure to make independent judgments international realm that suggests that create. Than the previous wave of norms-oriented research self-understandings and identity constituted in the 1980s, where focused... Part of what prompted the serious focus on the taken-for-granted mode of action implied the logic of.! Is not a given of the international system security Policy, 26 ( 2 ) 433468! Ir ) is marked by cognitive change and continuity has a deep history the!